elements of equitation

(1) I. Structure, a. Balance

There is a balance in the equine skeleton. It surfaces with any inspection of the horse's structure. Not only are its left and right sides in principle alike. Horizontally, features before the rider's seat correspond with those behind it. Balance in the horse is not the balance of the human body. Upright human poise is easily defined. A useful definition of the horse's horizontal equilibrium, however, is still pending.

Equine balance changes with posture, gaits and speeds. When the neck stretches and/or descends the center of balance moves fore. When head and neck rise the center of balance moves back. Despite these changes the rider's seat bones, or the plumb line in his forward seat, remain at thorax vertebrae twelve and thirteen in the equine backbone's center. The rider, in other words, inhabits a central place in the horse's dynamic balance.

The term, "The horse is in balance," in singular, sounds convincing. However it misleads. It represents a felt equation. In addition to the dynamic balance typical of mammal movement patterns, the horse may choose from several postures. Presumable and/or actual balance have to do with the interaction of the horse's parts and how in relation to one another they are placed. We turn to a study of the equine skeleton and the information it may render in search of the modern horse's proper equipoise.

Equine balance in antiquity

The horse's head is balanced by the tail. The head is the seat of senses, mind and expression. The tail adorns, holds off flies and conveys the state of equine comfort. There are two set-ups in the horse's body, which make for riding. One is empowered by the rider's posture and interpreted by his dermatomes. The other is represented by his hands. It impacts the horse's internal body systems. These two systems meet in the horse's upper neck.

The horse's upper neck is a stirring unit and a pivot in the horse's balance. Its finely tuned capacities comprise the organs of the neck (larynx, hyoid and thyroid), the occiput, two distinctly different first and second neck vertebrae and two unique connections, the yes-joint and the no-joint. Riders educated in a new modern equitation tune into these structural, nervous and energetic capacities to call on the very functions, which the horse consciously and/or spontaneously uses to monitor balance and locomotion.

The yes-joint between head and first neck vertebra

In the yes-joint between occiput and first neck vertebra the horse moves sideways to accompany the direction of the eyes, while ears remain level. The so called setting of the poll in equitation is the very same movement. It brings about the longitudinal bend, which is a lateral curvature of the spine head to tail. In the lowered neck, nose on the ground, the yes-joint is fully closed. In Beizäumung the opening of the yes-joint activates muscular functions of neck and withers, which also benefit the back.

A continuous ligament in the horse's upper line connects occiput and sacrum. It can be adjusted from the front and the back. The closing and/or opening of the yes-joint monitors its tension from afore. Sacrum and resilient haunches respond from aback. The long ligament communicates between head and haunches. It is fine-tuned in the no-joint between first and second neck vertebrae. The yes-joint's range of rotation is almost 360 degrees. In contrast, the no-joint only closes and returns to its original position. It has no lateral lee-way and, if opened, pushes into the central nervous system. A similar thing happens in the sacral joint, when it opens too far. Both restrictive capacities are the horse's emergency stops. They function individually or combined.

In the equine skeleton's balance the stirring unit in the horse's upper neck corresponds with four small vertebrae located between sacrum and tail. In academia these are viewed as part of the tail. They in fact anchor the pelvic diapraghm, which supports the effortlessness of core functions from aback, while the capacities of the stirring unit in the upper neck ensure it from the front. In practical terms the pelvic diaphragm releases and the tail rises when the tension of the long ligament is properly adjusted.

4. The second neck vertebra and the four vertebra between sacrum and tail

Seven vertebrae in total mark the neck. The first sets the spine laterally. The second balances the long ligament. Four lower ones regulate the tension of the back muscles. The third neck vertebra supports the stirring unit in the upper neck/head and anchors muscular transitions from back to head. Flexions of the horse's neck first and foremost address the functions of the stirring unit. Done properly they realign the diagonal, lateral, ventral and if needed dorsal fascia trains in the horse's body. How to do flexions and their correspondence to the individual horse's physical needs is discussed in a further chapter.

In the balance of the equine skeleton the five lower neck vertebrae counter-balance the sacrum. The sacrum originates as five individual vertebrae, which by the time the horse is grown have fused into one peculiar bone with two distinct little wings. These connect to the pelvis. The equine sacroiliac joint is a firm attachment of these wings to the pelvis with little or no range of movement. In the human core energy rises from a release of the sacroiliac joint. Similar functions in the horse remain to be researched.

5. The lower neck vertebrae and the sacrum seen from below

Between neck and sacrum expands the backbone. Eighteen trunk and six lumbar vertebrae, that is a total of twenty-four, divide into three sections of eight each. They are distinctly formed for the functions they perform, providing for stability, flexibility and the horse's power. Each will be addressed individually in forthcoming chapters. Together they constitute a cantilevered bridge, which at its center bears the rider. This bridge in front is supported by the horse's front legs. From behind the horse's hindquarters mount, lift and propel it forward.

6. The backbone with and without kissing spines

Lumbar vertebra six and the sacrum connect in the sacral joint. This small pivot of great power in the croup's highest point has a limited, yet clearly defined range of motion fore and back. When it closes the horse's back can't help but mount. The croup flattens. When it opens, either back or tail drop and the croup gets round. The shearing power of the inner hind leg's support of the horse's weight on the sacral joint requires further research.

Motions between lumber area and sacrum in the sacral joint do effect the mobilization of the hindquarters. In powerful movements, such as the take off for a tall jump or the passage the croup is flat. In reduced movements, such as the sliding stop or the piaffe the croup is round. The race horse in each stride alternates between a short rounded and a long flat croup. In the sacral joint the horse's locomotion, posture and balance interact with the rider's control. From it the horse manages its own and the rider's weight, while sustaining movement.

In the horse's perpetually tuned equilibrium the rider inhabits the central place. The term, "The horse is in balance," as if there was but one point of balance, applies because of the horse's unique ability to negotiate, in the rider's service, adjustments between sacral joint, back and haunches with the placement of withers, neck and head. Details of exactly how this takes place are subject of upcoming chapters. In addition the long ligament communicates between the pivot points of upper neck and croup. In a new modern equitation the rider from his seat energetically supports the horse's elevated posture. The neck rises before him. His hands communicate with the horse's mouth and help it master gravity while staying in touch.

The sacral joint is the root of the horse's dynamic balance. This definition takes on additional meaning, when one considers human and equine nerve distributions. Equine sacral nerve sections two and three of the central nervous system, which along with neighboring nerve sections innervate the horse's hind legs, rest in the rear pivot's center. Human sacral dermatomes two and three, which are innervated by corresponding nerve sections, on the other hand, are the skin regions which cover the human seat and inner legs. The correlation is as astounding as it is obvious. Equine posture and locomotion correlate with that part of the rider, which is in direct contact with the horse's surface.

7. The sacral joint open and closed

Here this text originally ended. In ensuing 2005 research month and increasingly so in 2006 the nerve section C8's role in equitation became appearant. This nerve section without corresponding bone structure is located at the front of the cantilevered back bone. It is balanced by nerve sections S2/3, which are located in the sacral joint at the rear of the cantilevered backbone. From C8 the horse lowers head and neck to grase. From here it lifts the head to pick an apple from the tree. From C8 it poises itself. From C8 it as well turns and bends.

In the human body one skin region, the dermatome C8, is innervated by nerve section C8 directly. This dermatome proceeds from the spine between neck vertebrae seven and the first thorax vertebra at the widest rearward extension of the shoulders and covers arms, elbows and ring fingers. It delineates movement. Motions of C8 away from the body support human movement and expression, motions of C8 towards the body restrict them.

A corresponding skin region in the horse proceeds from the highest elevation of the withers where its hight is measured. It continues down vertically, covering the tip of the elbow and the posterior of the front leg in one upright line. To date it is not known if this strip of skin represents the equine dermatome C8, or - to go one step further - if dermatomes in fact even exist in the horse. Movement of this drawn out skin region, analog to dermatome C8 in the human body, represent the horse's expressiveness. As seen for instance while rearing, in well elevated side passes or in jumping.

Equine nerve section C8 at the front of the cantilevered backbone is located in the center of the horse's forehand. It ought to be in line with the sacral joint and the nerve sections S2/3 at the rear of the backbone. Dissalignments most often are caused by the horse's warp. The irregularity in the horse's structure originates in the first spinal projection of the flexible middle section, thorax nine. In the modern horse it and several surrounding spinal projections often lean to the right. To balance resulting maldistributions the neck base tends towards the left. The croup steps to the right.

These dissalignments hinder human/equine correlation. The modern horse is warped, with or without rider. Alone it manages forward locomotion, turns and jumps, and without effort compensates for these irregularities. Made straight, however, the flow of nerve impulses from the central to the peripheral nervous system may be restricted; if not permanently, so initially.

Why not ride the horse as it is, the reader may ask. Because I can't direct it, the rider will answer. Here then is modern equitation's dichotomy. Nerve sections C8 at the cantilevered backbone's front and S2/3 at its end, which correspond with the rider's ring finger, seat and legs, must be aligned. The adjustment of their imperfect alignment on the other hand causes trouble.

In practical application the following picture evolves.
When the horse grazes the neck is lowered from the base. The lower joints of the neck are opened to the maximum. Both yes- and no-joints are fully closed. Nose and upper neck, from the withers to the nose, form one line.

If - while grazing - something catches the horse's attention, neck and head rise. Ears and occiput move forward and the yes-joint opens. The eyes sharpen and the head rises to the max. The horse is poised for action. In the process the no-joint closes and alerts the sacrum. Perceptions of ears and eyes activate the psoas, the inner most muscle system of the pelvis, which in the horse connects the underneath rear backbone with pelvis and upper thighs. The horse is ready to go.

Under saddle the same basic principles apply. In general, the lower the head the less prepared the horse will be for action. The higher the head the more likely it will poise itself for action. The informed rider will appropriate this information and go for supple and equilateral haunches.

Using the shoulder-for, the straight and moderately angled version of the famous shoulder-in, he will position the horse's shoulders slowly and progressively more in such a way that both hind legs will track towards the center of weight. In the process he will teach the horse to yield to the neck rein and give in the ribs.

The horse's warp

Compare with
The straight horse, bent left

This drawing is featured full size at the closing of chapter I.d. Power

First phase of training, dealing with the horse's warp while tuning

(2) I. Structure. b. Stability

Thorax one to eight are the sternmost vertebrae of the horse's cantilevered backbone. In their area is the greatest concentration of muscle. In the horse's elevation they rise. Attached to them are ribs one to eight. These ribs, via costal cartilages, connect to the sternum below. Vertebra, ribs and sternum form an elastic basket. It holds the horse's heart and lungs and protects them in rapid changes of speed, such as coming down from a jump. Like the eye of a storm, thorax one to four of this basket and the heart within are the center of equine animation.

Heart

Vertebrae one to eight extend into spinal projections, as do in fact all vertebrae of the equine backbone. There are no spinal projections of neck or tail. Beginning with a small bony extension at thorax one, these projection increase rapidly in size and strength, the strongest being thorax three. The longest projections, thorax four and five, represent the horse's height. Thorax five anchors the long ligament, which - coming from the occiput - runs through the upper line of the neck, and - topping each successive spinal projection - continues to the end of the sacrum.

Thorax projections four to eight support the equine shoulder mechanism. It consists of aerodynamically shaped shoulder blades and strong cartilages held in place by multiple layers of muscle and ligament tissue. These absorb the impulsion produced by a three levers mechanism in the horse's hindquarters. The shoulders are suspended by front legs, which in movement carry the horse's weight while touching down in perfect rhythm for always only split seconds. In the horse there are no collar bones and no joints between shoulder blade and vertebra.

Shoulders and arm bones are animated by three muscle groups. The pectoral connects shoulders, arm bones and elbows with the sternum. The latissimus dorsi via the thoracolumbar fascia proceeds from the arm bones to the back. It is anchored to the backbone between thorax eight/nine and lumbar two/three and pulls the arm bone back. This action is calibrated by two prominent muscles in the lower neck (brachiocephalic and omotransverse). From their attachments to the arm bones just above the elbows, they ascend to the upper neck and head and pull the arm bone fore, up and/or sideways. From atop neck and withers the trapezius connects shoulders and front legs with the back.

Shoulders

A study of deep muscles in the equine forehand points to a concentration of muscle to bone attachments along thorax projection five and the fifth rib under the highest point of the withers. This thorax five axis is situated between the before mentioned skin regions, which - like vertical strips along shoulders and front legs, connecting withers and front heels - indicate a dermatome C8 in the horse.

In the balance of the equine skeleton this thorax five axis corresponds with a muscular concentration around lumbar vertebrae two and tree in the upper part of the horse's Flanken. Along this thorax five axis upper, central and lower neck muscles meet with "...(the ventral serratus muscle system, which) bilaterally forms a sling suspending the trunk between (the shoulders). (They are responsible for) raising the trunk (Peter Goody)."

The ventral serratus muscle is a semi-circular muscle system, which proceeds between shoulders and ribs. Eight strands attach to ribs one to eight. Their attachments are found in the ribs' lower thirds. Four strands hook up to the sides of four lower neck vertebrae. In movement the ventral serratus muscle's punctual fixation to the inside of the upper shoulder blades glides, from a central place on the before mentioned thorax five axis, back and forth along the long back muscle. From this axis emanates as well the fix point of the rhomboid muscle to the shoulder discs.

Several, but not all functions of the semi-circular ventral serratus muscle are obvious. They raise thorax and lower neck, and - in the process - elevate the withers. They carry the weight of the horse's forehand and absorb the impulsion coming from the hindquarters. They maintain the shoulder's lateral balance. The role of the ventral serratus and the thorax five axis in the modern horse's new balance, however, remains to be researched further. It promises to be more than the sum of its physical parts.

It may be mentioned, that involved in the elevation of the forehand are flexions of jaw and poll. These flexions, via fascia trains, connect the balance functions of the hyoid bone at the root of the tongue with the underneath of second and third neck vertebrae and the lowest point of the before mentioned thorax five axis. From upper points of this axis muscles ascend to the occiput. Here also the free bearing long ligament of the neck transits to the thorax.

The elevation of the forehand is hindered by the modern horse's warp. Not the ventral serrate, which was spoken of, however, but another deeper muscle system, the dorsal serrate, plays a major role in irregularities of the forehand. The dorsal serrate also is involved when the horse bends. It will be discussed in context of the ribs below and in context of the German Rippenbiegung again in the next chapter "Flexibility".

Ribs

The horse's eighteen ribs are organized in sets of four. Laid out flat on the floor one notices their different shapes, sizes and curvatures. Ribs one to four are short and strong. With the vertebrae above and the sternum below they form the before mentioned three-dimensional forehold of the rib cage. Ribs five to eight also dock to the sternum. They underpin the shoulders. Ten remaining ribs (nine to eighteen) are free bearing. They hold the costal diaphragm from within.

Four ribs (nine to twelve) permit the horse to bend in what in German equestrian language is called Rippenbiegung. Four ribs (thirteen to sixteen) bear the rider's weight. The two remaining ribs (seventeen and eighteen) provide for muscular attachments to the hip bones, the widest lateral extension of the pelvis. Ribs twelve and thirteen are the longest ribs. They support the rider's seat bones, which are the lowest points of the human pelvis and impact the equine backbone at thorax twelve and thirteen.

Ribs connect to the left and the right side of vertebra one to eighteen. Attachments ribs to vertebrae permit the ribcage to move in all directions. Ribs can move fore and back. They can rise or descend. Directions of movement can be combined. The resulting mobility facilitates not only the horse's breath. It supports posture, position and movement. It accomodates the horse's body weight.

Several muscle systems move and/or stabilize the ribs. The iliocostalis or lower back muscle runs directly below the long back muscle. It spans the ribcage and connects the first ribs with the before mentioned concentration of muscle attachments in the lumbar region. The iliocostalis participates in longitudinal bending, which is initiated by the lateral setting of the head in the poll. It is a relatively straightforward system, which pulls the ribs back. The dorsal serrate, however, is part of a complex system, which blankets the horse's upper line including the lower back muscle from poll to croup. Intercostal muscles and the external abdominal oblique muscle balance the movement of the ribs in the horse's sides.

The sternmost part of the dorsal serrate begins at the before mentioned thorax five axis. It connects to ribs five to twelve and the intercostal muscles between them and pulls these ribs up. They rise to off-set the weight-bearing pressure on the shoulders. In conjunction with neck bending they release ribs five to twelve on the other side, thus uniting the bending of the neck and the release of the ribs. The dorsal serrate's rear part begins at rib eleven and proceeds towards the croup. It attaches from ribs eleven to eighteen and retracts them.

The space between the cranial and caudal dorsal serrate portions provides a place for the rider on the horse's back. Sitting there the attachment of the psoas to the inside of his upper thighs automatically impacts the overlap of the cranial and caudal dorsal serrate between ribs eleven and twelve. They as well impact the lower back muscle below at center. This point of impact calls for attention, for instance in the design and production of a modern saddle, which permits the rider's full contact to the horse's back and ribs.

The particular distribution of upper and lower rib managing muscles speaks for a distinct role of the rider's legs in the horse's locomotion. Not only do open legs permit the horse to move and closed legs restrict movement. One leg at the girth indicates the yielding of ribs under and before the rider's seat. The other leg behind the girth indicates the yielding of ribs behind the rider's seat. Via the dorsal serrate, the action of the leg at the girth corresponds with the action of the rein on the other side of the neck.

The rider's point of rest

The horse's warp represents problems. The leaning of thorax nine and spinal processes before as well as behind it create a three-dimensional irregularity in the forehand. The ribcage rotates right. The ribs of the right side are flat. On the left they bulg. The right front leg carries more weight. Energy lines coming from the horse's hindquarters do not match the rider's energy lines. As a result he can't be in full control of the horse.

Making the horse straight, however, does not necessarily change things for the better. The horse's sense of corporeality is challenged. Balance is at risk. As a result it tends to rush or hold back. Identity and well-being are marred. The horse is in doubt. Straightness, in other words, not only effects the body. It gravely impacts the horse's mind and emotions.

How does the rider best address the need for having a straight horse under his saddle?
The matter will have to be settled between hind legs, thorax, C8 and the poll. In this context the famous, if dated German Ausbildungsskala makes sense. It permits for the development of the horse's new identity on the basis of well regulated paces (Takt), a free flow of core energy (Losgelassenheit) and trust in the rider's hand (Anlehnung). Only after mobilization (Schwung) and elevation (Aufrichtung, which the Skala does not mention) will the horse be made straight (Geraderichtung). Only then it can collect (Versammlung).

The Skala, despite its fame, does not answer equestrian questions. Nor does it provide information for the horse's, leave alone the rider's training or how to deal with the modern horse's warp in the early stages of training. It says nothing about the choice of gait and/or tempo. It does not indicate at which point and in which context the horse profits from bending, nor does it elaborate on the two types of bending the horse. It makes no mention of self-carriage (Selbsthaltung) and permeability (Durchlässigkeit, or "the passing of body internal information in and between horse and rider").

Without these two concepts, however, no quality equitation exists. In addition the Skala provides no information on, for instance, lateral work and/or the reason for continued bending. It does not elaborate on physical needs and/or available exercises that might help the mounted horse be at its best. It makes no mention of best progressions in using them. It does not address the imperative not only to win the horse's trust, but to protect its motivation.

In addition, another widely accepted concept calls for trouble. Riding forward alone, without stopping, standing and work on the spot neither makes the horse straight nor light. Continued working trot or canter is not useful nor intelligent. In the long run it causes a loss of balance. The horse responds with a continuous flight into a balance, which forever eludes it. By contrast a new modern equitation calls for communication in the walk, while building up strength and mutual respect. It develops the flexibility of the haunches and prepares for the engagement of the psoas to assist elevation. it communicates in the stand-still. It permits for the stretching of legs, and air in the lungs, on straight lines in the outdoors. Free schooling and jumps are part of the fun. The true position, which in this text I call the second gear, is the standard of excellence.

In general application the rider uses the actions of reins on the neck and legs on the ribs to safe-guard the horse's lateral balance. He makes sure the horse's jaw yields to his ring fingers and the horse's ribs yield to the touch of his leg. He balances the touch of the inner leg with the action of a diagonal neck rein. A light contact to the mouth informs him of the horse's mental, emotional and physical state. He waits until both hind legs track evenly and enjoys the horse's elevation, which - as a result - it often produces sooner than expected. He knows how to assist the horse's elevation.

(3) I. Structure, c. Flexibility

From the dawn of civilization to the rise of serial car production, human/equine unity was of great military, economic and personal value. The horse was man's trusted friend and his dominant multiplier of strength and speed. In the twentieth century, however, this symbiosis declined and the era of chivalry came to an end. Equitation became the subject of different sports categories and, to today, remains the topic of opposing views. Only now, at the beginning of the twenty-first century, changes in the modern horse, brought on by usage-oriented breeding, begin to be fully recognized, understood and sorted out.

Contemporary controversies center not only on the horse's posture. Equine flexibility and its role in equitation also are reexamined. This flexibility has several aspects: The undulations of the equine spine; the horse's bascule over the jump; the horse's ability to bend laterally. Irregularities in spine and ribs impact the mounted horse's ability to be directed and to walk straight. The tendency to warp suggests bending. The question is when to bend the horse, why bend it and, to begin with, what is bending in the first place.

The horse's flexible middle section encompasses thorax vertebrae nine to sixteen. Part of this section are ribs nine to sixteen, the muscles that move and stabilize vertebrae and ribs as well as the dermatomes of the skin, which cover corresponding portions of the thorax. The middle section's flexibility impacts lungs, liver and ventral as well as dorsal colon portions, and their support from below. In the flexible middle section forehand and hindquarters merge.

Thorax nine to sixteen constitute the rider's seat. Between cranial and caudal portions of the dorsal serrate muscle there is a point of rest. On it the rider may sit at complete ease, while letting the world pass by his wondering eyes. As before mentioned the rider's seat bones are positioned atop thorax twelve and thirteen. His thighs rest on the overlap of cranial and caudal dorsal serrate portions between ribs eleven and twelve. The rider's seat is at once the center of equine flexibility.

A model of dermatomes in the horse's thorax

The horse's flexibility centers around thorax twelve and thirteen, mid-way between thorax five and lumbar one right under the rider's seat bones. Lumbar one like all six vertebrae of the lumbar region in addition to an upright process features two lateral bone extensions. The center of flexibility is supported by ribs twelve and thirteen, which as before mentioned are the longest ribs in the equine torso. Restrictions of flexibility in the mounted horse result from the closing of the croup. This restriction and its benefit for riding will be explored in more detail later.

Imagine a vertical plane, which cuts through the horse's torso between thorax twelve and thirteen. This plane would be right under the rider's seat bones, where also the horse's flexibility centers. If one considers this plane the separation of forehand and hindquarters, one is confronted with a puzzle. This model positions the majority of the horse's weight on the front legs. Only a small portion is supported by the hind legs. In locomotion this imbalance may be cleared by three powerful levers in the horse's hindquarters. Another model, however, which views the diaphragm at the separation of forehand and hindquarters not only hints at a different distribution. It refutes the notion of a middle hand in the equine body and points to a true position, which - so experience tells - permits the horse full command of its forces, while offering the rider control and ease.

Undulations of the equine backbone are easily observed. They begin when one hind leg moves forward and the backbone, via haunches and sacroiliac joints, begins to swing. This process results in the characteristic flow of the equine spine. As long as the sacral joint is open the unrestricted three-dimensional movement of the spine extends forward. There are two sets of vertebrae, which do not participate. Thorax one to four interface the movements of neck and front legs. The sacrum anchors the movement of the hind legs.

In the horse's flowing spine vertebrae rotate left/right and tilt fore/back. Only for split seconds are they in upright position. We will see that this uprightness characterizes the horse's straightness. The equine backbone permits these modulations. Vertebrae inherently are tensegrities, which stabilize from within and - based on a balance of tension and compression - allow for strength and elasticity. Equine ribs accompany the movements of the spine and participate in the undulations of the backbone, while spaces between them open and close.

Bending, turning, doing the job

"The horse's proper, well-established rib bending the rider recognizes at once as a safe, agreeable seat, which inclines towards the direction of movement". This statement by the famous 19th century German ecuyer Gustav Steinbrecht indicates a leaning of the mounted horse's spinal processes into the direction of movement. It denotes ribs, which lay flat in movement direction and bulge on the other side.

A similar much less pronounced inclination of spinal processes and ribs occurs with longitudinal bending (Längsbiegung). The latter comes about as a result of the horse's gaze into the direction of movement. The first vertebra of the neck in the poll moves laterally and initiates a soft lateral curvature of the spine head to tail. It is the horse's adjustment to the path of travel, - with or without rider. When the curvature's diameter gets smaller, the horse, in addition to the longitudinal bent, adjusts in the ribs and/or swings the hindquarters out.

Longitudinal bend and rib bending thus are fundamentally different calibrations in the horse's body. The former is a unilateral adjustment in the before mentioned tensegrity of the spine. The latter does not touch the spine but addresses the ribs. They rise and bulge on the horse's longer outside or descend and flatten on its shorter inside. The rider demands the latter with the touch of his calves, knees or thighs on ribs nine to twelve. The rendering of the ribs to the rider's inner leg is counter-calibrated by the touch of the rein on the opposite (that is on the outer) side of the neck. The rider guards the setting of the neck in the poll with his ring finger.

There are several indications for lee-way in bending, both laterally and vertically, in the horse's thorax between vertebrae nine and twelve. Spinal projections nine to twelve, relative to all others, are small and slender. They lean towards the rider. Spinal projections under the rider's bottom by contrast are short, broad and incline forward. In the horse's bascule over the jump vertebrae and spinal projections nine to twelve thus open - mind you - not under but right before the rider's seat bones. Ribs nine to twelve are free-bearing. They do not connect to the sternum. And they are not subject to the ventral serrate's thorax rising pull. Four retral attachments of the cranial dorsal serrate are strategically positioned to release ribs nine to twelve in bending. The rider's seat and his legs are perfectly placed between these features to direct and aid the horse under his seat.

But, the reader may ask, what about the rider's weight in the place of greatest flexibility? Does it not speak against the presence of a rider on the horse's back? The contrary applies. Horse and rider match in all details. It is the modern horse's warp that provides the problems.

The closing of the croup raises the rider's seat from aback. The elevation of neck and withers further secure the seat from afore. The center of flexibility at thorax twelve remains. It permits the horse to jump, climb and bend. And it allows the horse to offer the rider a comfortable seat. From the center of flexibility the horse turns shoulders, neck, head and eyes into the direction of movement. To do so it must be in elevation. A shortening of the base and resilient haunches are part of the process.

In elevation the warped modern horse stands a good chance to raise leaning spinal processes into upright position. It may thus overcome any undue restrictions in the undulations of the spine and any irregularities of shoulders and ribs, - and be straight. The horse's nature, its posture and the study of its biodynamics clearly propose this. Countless riders today and throughout the course of history confirm it.

In cheerful elevation

The modern horse's warp has caused havoc. Schools of equitation come and go. Some contemporary thinkers discard the very option of a center of flexibility in the horse's middle section as nonsense. They do not consider the horse's yielding in the ribs a need or feasability. To them rib bending is a phantom, created by generations of past German ecuyers. French masters make no explicit mention of either aspects of bending. No setting of the neck is mentioned in French equitation. French horses all the same, on curved lines, travel in longitudinal bent. The bend in the ribs on small circles.

Some contemporary riders suggest bending the horse in the transition from thorax to the lumbar area. The reader may realize the resulting damage to the functions of rib eighteen. The inclination of the flexible middle section's spinal processes into the direction of movement is debated by others. Several equine sports avoid bending the horse altogether. Others despite opposing views agree on one thing. The horse must be bent. If no where in the spine, at least the neck must be set to the side. One wonders why.

For all practical purposes a useful horse must give in the ribs. Why, after the initial release, it must bend systematically and repeatedly (or not) is addressed again in the next chapter, in context of the horse's power. Past generations achieved the release of the left ribs in what they considered the Zwangsseite ("coercive side") and re-adjustments in the right "problem side" with the input of spurs. Today, with a better understanding of reciprocities between movement, brain functions and awareness we use slow motions, which do the same, only better.

Turns on the haunches without interruption in the flow of movements are one. Taught from the ground they develop the horse's self-awareness. They provide opportunity for suppling. They introduce an element of play and establish the rider's leadership. They permit the observation of the horse and convey to it the responsibility to act on its own in accord with the rider's demand. They balance the horse and make it lively, dapper and focused. Why? They activate the gravity response systems at the root of movement.

Under saddle slow movements on small half-circles, alternated with short, supple phases of shoulder-in release the ribs. A shortening of the inside rein and the gentle turn of both thumbs in the direction of lateral movements permit the rider to sit and forbear from setting further signals. The rider's stillness and the figures' benefits limber and in due time establish the horse. The horse interprets the turning of the rider's thumbs on account of the distribution of dermatomes in the horse's and the rider's body.

Human dermatomes

(4) I. Structure, d. Power

The strongest muscle, size to output, of the horse is the masseter: the muscle that moves the lower jaw. It prepares food for digestion. With its release the horse signals well-being and approval. Next in strength are the muscles of the eye balls. They account for the horse's unresting attention and quick reactions. Third is the heart. The most productive muscle involved in moving limbs is the gluteal, which spans from lumbar vertebrae, pelvis and sacrum to the thighs.

Eyes and jaw are located in the horse's stern. They connect with the core. The functions of hyoid, thyroid and larynx, nose, ears and eyes and the attachment of practically all fascia trains of the body (leave alone the long ligament) to jaw or poll explain the predominant role of head and upper neck in equitation. Limb moving muscles stretch across considerable distances. They work in teams as agonist and antagonists. Core muscles are short. They stabilize the skeleton and determine its postures. They have the unique ability to lengthen, stretch and expand of their own accord. Core muscles respond to perception. They negotiate gravity. They are at the root of limb movements. For all practical purposes the communication of horse and rider works through them. From them arises the horse's power.

The third section of the cantilevered backbone anchors the horse’s locomotive strength. From here impulsion, accomplished by three levers in pelvis and hind legs, transfers to the forehand. It is complimented by the latissimus dorsi, which - while providing an internal saddle - merges with the thoracolumbar fascia (covering the horse's upper line from thorax nine to the gluteals of the croup) and pulls the arm bone back.

The power section consists of six lumbar vertebrae. Each features an upright spinal projection and, in addition, two lateral processes, which - while resting wide and flat atop the abdomen and reproductive organs - provide for multiple muscle attachments. Also apportioned to the power section are thorax vertebrae seventeen and eighteen, which anchor the horse's diaphragm. Their role in pressure adjustment between body cavities and core functions requires further research.

Due to these twelve large lateral projections, the equine lumbar vertebra is relatively compact. No lateral lee-way is provided in the sacral joint (between lumbar area and sacrum) or in the sacroiliac joints (between sacrum and pelvis). The position of the lumbar area thus links directly to movements of the hind legs and the haunches' elasticity. In liberty the lumbar area undulates, along with abdomen and rib cage, especially in the walk. In the mounted horse, due to the closing of the croup, the three-dimensional lumbar vertebra is calm. It provides the platform from which the horse serves the rider, furnishing the base for muscle to bone attachments, both for the upper line and the lower line, as well as for abdomen, croup, arm bones and psoas.

Lumbar vertebrae. Deformations

The diaphragm is a curved muscular membrane. It separates forehand from hindquarters. The flexible middle section's upper parts (lungs and the rider's seat) thus belongs to the forehand. Liver, abdominal and reproductive organs belong to the hindquarters. The practical value of this interpretation will only come forth with further research of relating muscle trains, and the base they provide for the control of the horse's feet. Apparent is the fusion of diaphragm and the innermost transversus abdominus. It marks a transition of core musculature from front to back. Two muscle systems, the longissimus proceeding from the four lower neck vertebrae to the sacrum, and the rectus abdominus spanning pubis and sternum in the lower line, range the whole horse.

There are several cumulations of muscle to bone attachments in the power section. One focuses on rib eighteen located right below the first lumbar vertebra. Here the sternmost deep caudal dorsal serrate unites with the uppermost external abdominal oblique. From within, rib eighteen anchors the costal diaphragm. Rib eighteen thus interfaces muscle tractions in the horse's upper line and sides with respiration. Also attached to it is the internal abdominal oblique, which is responsible for the closing of the croup. The costal retractor participates. These muscles and their merger with rib eighteen will occupy us again, in respect to bending.

Another indeed impressive increase of muscle to bone attachments is found at lumbar two and three. These vertebrae provide surfaces for the longissimus and transversus abdominus. They feature the connection to the psoas major, which participates in the swinging motion of the thighs. They anchor the iliocostal, which - proceeding from the first rib - coordinates with the diaphragm in monitoring the ribs. The last attachment of the spinal muscle, participating in the horse's elevation, reaches from an anchorage between lumbar processes two and three forward to the lower neck. Muscles which abduct the hind legs and muscles which pull the arm bone back meet at lumbar vertebrae two and three. Positioned in the upper loins, in other words, these two bones provide the base for a muscular focus in equine locomotion.

The third concentration of muscle to bone attachment occurs in the hips. They anchor the above mentioned internal and external abdominal oblique as well as the costal retractor. In addition they provide surfaces for a large number of muscle groups responsible for the movement of the hind legs. Similar focal points of muscle to bone attachments exist in the horse's forehand at rib one and the elbow. The foregoing information permits the following conclusions on the hindquarter's properties and resulting challenges they present to the lumbar area.

In equine locomotion pelvis and lumbar region operate like a spring-board. As long as the sacral joint is closed and the core activated, impulsion flows through them and moves the rider's seat, shoulders, front legs, neck base and the stirring unit in the horse's upper neck up and fore (and/or back and/or side-ways). The rider sitting in his seat benefits from the haunches' ability to operate as hydraulic systems and shock absorbers alike. Haunches, lumber area and back thus unite to correspond with the features of the forehand.

New ways in old costumes

When, as seen in the sliding stop, the sacral joint opens, the spring-board turns into a break and shuts down propulsion. In principle the horse may choose any position of the sacral joint to monitor the hind legs' speed and impulsion. It not only can fully open, to the extend of leaving the horse powerless. It may as well completely close, which results in blocking flexible middle section and rider's seat, and causes the horse to buck. In the sacral joint the horse negotiates between back and haunches. It enables the change of posture, speed and direction without any interruptions in the flow of movement. This central element in the horse's biodynamics will be explored further in a later chapter.

In the horse's movements the lumbar area thus provides a solid and dependable base for all aspects of locomotion. It facilitates elevation and the way the haunches respond to gravity. Be it in liberty or under saddle. The diaphragm and functions of rib eighteen contribute. As does the concentration of muscle to bone attachments in the hips.

When, where and how much bend the horse? Preceding presentations of equine physiology suggest the following conclusion. In movement the horse's core gives laterally to the line it travels on. It undulates in accordance with the placement of its feet. In equitation the rider takes control of core and feet and ultimately limits or changes the horse's natural inclinations. He demands the continued mounting of the back. He bends the horse before his seat as the direction of movements and the subtlety of spine and ribs demand. To proceed any other way and to bend the horse in parts that are meant to be the base of strength and elevation creates complications and misunderstandings. It eliminates the option for the horse's second gear and leaves the horse demotivated.

The rider's seat and the power section

Breeding a new, faster and more powerful horse in the 1800s is at the root of the modern horse's troubles. Not only is the center of its elongated flexible middle section inclined towards warping. Its nerve impulses kick off faster. Between physical irregularities and swifter reactions the modern horse is no longer intrinsicly manageable. To do well, and be safe and sound, it requires the rider's knowledge of energy and balance. It demands time, commitment, courage, knowledge and know-how of all who deal with it. It is no longer just for fun. In addition in modern times spaces for riding have shrunk. This so much more makes the control of the horse's balance and the direction of its power an imperative for any equitation, which - beyond mere spectatorship - permits participation.

For all practical purposes the rider will do best, if at some point he introduce the horse to the half-halt. Stopping and halting for the horse is not the same. One is a shut down of power. The horse ceases to move and rests. It is supported by four legs which function as columns. The other is a control of power. The horse remains in stand-by, ready for departure. One is a downward motion, the other moves up.

There also is the distinction of halting and the so called half-halt. The former brings the horse to a stand-still as outlined above. The latter addresses the horse's activation while moving. Just what happens in the half-halt, and how to effect it, depends first and foremost on the horse's posture. For all practical purposes the half-halt works well in the elevated horse. The rider indicates upcoming changes in gait, directions and/or tasks with a renewal of elevation.

The spring-board and related features in the straight horse, bent left

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(5) II. The Horse's Parts, a. The Hind Legs

The first four chapters of this book speak of a balance in the equine skeleton. The next four are about equine impulsion. In the horse's hindquarters several autonomous parts produce in perfect coordination equine locomotion. These are in addition to the hind legs the haunches, a function called the closing of the croup, the sacral joint and the diaphragm. It may be unusual to use a term borrowed from physics to speak of functions in a living body. The term lever, however, appropriately illustrates the horse's ability to produce fast forward locomotion, powerful upward impulsion and controlled movements in place.

The first of three levers in the equine hindquarters are located in the back of the horse's croup. They consist of the pelvic girdle’s two rear extensions, which - with the hind legs as their base - rotate around the hip joints whenever the horse's forehand mounts. From these muscles proceed to the sacrum above and to the knees and hocks below. An extensions at the thigh's upper end form the second levers. Muscles from here proceed to the sacrum, the pelvic girdle and the power switch. The hocks provide the third levers. In interaction with the sacrum these three levers not only produce equine movement. They accomplish what at first sight looks like a no-go. They permit the horse to lift up and move forward its relatively large and heavy forequarters with respectively light and small hindquarters.

17. Three Levers and the Haunches

The horse’s hind legs perform in cyclical repetition three distinctly different motions. They lift, move fore and down, and push off. In coordination with the front legs these are their fundamental locomotive function. But this is not all. In addition the hind legs support equine posture. Their fore and downward movement confirms the back's mounting. Their push off lowers the sacrum, in the process producing forward locomotion. Their elevation is a pre-requisite for the other phases.

In equitation a balance of the hind legs’ cyclical movement must be guarded. Their elevation, which in fact defines the quality of locomotion, is reenforced over ground bars and/or in unpredictable terrain. Their fore and downward movement, which mounts the back and calls on a weight-supporting action of the inner hind leg, is trained in classical exercises such as circles and strike-offs into canter. Their push off, which lowers the sacrum and initiates the haunches’ flexibility, is reinforced in riding forward. Jumping as a popular means of systematically training and showing horses provides a brief, rapid activation of all three phases in take-off, suspension and landing.

A word of explaination on the term haunches may be due. It refers to the hip joints, which permit a compression of pelvis and thighs, with the knees as their base. This compression is the result of a release in the illio-sacral joint. A well trained horse from the haunches initiates and fine-tunes all aspects of locomotion. They are the means of superior equine performance. Their function depends on the hip joints' flexibility, a proper balance in the hind legs' cyclical movements and an improved innervation. The latter results from the croup's closing, which I describe in the next chapter.

As regards the horse’s legs, there is another observation. The horse is made for rapid movements on planet earth. For the protection of the lower limbs it has the ability to react quickly to irregular configurations of terrain. A split-second reactionary ability, far exceeding that of man, allows the horse to not only run, jump and turn, but to travel on many different types of ground.

The before mentioned drawings 20.1 and 20.2 in John Goody, ‘The Horse’s Anatomy’ not only permitted the understanding of the mounted horse's four typical postures. They supported the foregoing analysis of how the horse’s hind legs interact with the other functions of the hindquarters. They permitted the conclusion that what I call a power switch exists in the horse's lumbar region. Each of these details forstered the understanding of equine locomotion and the rider's influence on it.

On the horse and in the research of equitation repeatedly the question came and comes up, how the rider should use his legs to activate the horse’s hind legs. Should he press his calfs towards the horse’s sides, close his thighs, close his knees or better open them. Should he touch the horse’s lower sides with his ankles or the sides of his heels, which incidently he can do only if he raises them.

And, how should his legs contact the horse. Lightly, touching it for only seconds or strongly and for the duration of several moments. How does the chose from a multitude of possible combinations? Should he attack the horse’s sides with his heels? Going as far as attacking them with spurs attached to his heels? In view of these many options I agree with the late 20th century Portugese master rider, Nuno Olivereia, who indicated that it may take some time to find out how to effectively propel a novice horse on.

Once the young horse mobilises, however, the scene changes. The touch of the rider's legs becomes lighter and the need to use legs at all less frequent. All seems to depend upon this mobilisation…

The closing of the croup is a small forward movement of the equine pelvis. It stabilizes the cantilevered backbone, mobilizes impulsion and improves the horse's self control.

Center piece of the croup's closing is the equine pelvis. This pelvis is a functional master piece. It is formed like a girdle, which from the sacral joint in the hindquarter's highest point extends sideways and proceeds towards the tail. The hip bones are the pelvis' widest lateral extension. As before mentioned it features levers. It as well provides for the passage of a foal in mares. The pelvis is fitted with several large ligament plates. Two extend from the sacrum sideways. In the illio-sacral joint the sacrum is attached to the pelvis from below.

18. The Ligaments of the Lumbar Region and the Croup

In the hip joints the horse's thighs are fastened to sockets, which are located in the pelvis girdle's lower part. The hip joints are secured by ligaments from within and without. They function as the central pivot of the horse's haunches. Between hip bones and hip joints finally stretch the cantilevered ligaments, which provide for the croup’s closing. To these the large triangularly shaped abdominal muscles are attached, which - starting at the belly's lowest point - proceed from the abdominal middle line to the loins.

19. The Hip Joint

The equine croup closes on account of the rider's weight. There may as well be a reflex, which sets off simultaniously along the eleventh rib. In this context one may want to remember the intersection of the large surcumveiling neck and back muscle right under the rider's thighs, which transfers the effect of the croup's closing into the forehand and to the neck (ill.12). The closing of the croup mounts the equine lumbar region. Correspondingly the inner hind leg steps under the eleventh rib to support the horse's weight.

20. The Ligaments of the Loins

Next to the tri-angular abdominal muscles further muscle systems support the horse’s inner organs. Balancing the long back muscle in the horse's upper line there are what one may want to call long abdominal muscles, which reach from the sternum to the hip joints (see postures).

The horse appropiates the closing of the croup under the saddle and in liberty. Only last night the opportunity presented itself to observe the closing of the croup in a group of free horses. Seeing me walk down the path along their field, they came running and - on the slope, wet gras under foot - they closed their croups in a canter's stride and went into this other, the second gear. Playing out there in the falling light each horse, according to its own intuition ran or stopped, turned or rose. As if directed by a hidden hand it was a choreography of sublime beauty.

“If only we could do this under saddle”, was my singular reaction.

Later, in the saddle, I was reminded. It is no secret and no mystery. The mounted horse learns to continuously close the croup. It becomes straight and mobilizes. With a rider's guidance it gains experience in how to handle its forces. The horse is familiar with all equine movements from playing at liberty in the fields. They need no teaching. It is the rider who stands in need. He no longer knows how to command the horse's movements. Only with knowledge and experience he discovers how to learn from the horse what it can do.

Of the functions, which make for the horse's locomotion three are discussed: the hind legs, the haunches and the closing of the croup. The sacral joint was hinted at in previous chapters. Here therefore a summary, followed by additional information.

When the croup closes the sacral joint shifts. In the process the lumber region mounts. The sacral joint is located in the croup's highest point. It consists of lumbar vertebra six and the sacrum and features a small range of motion fore and back. This motion impacts the central nervous system's sacral sections two and three. Corresponding peripheral nerves proceed from the sacral joint to the hind legs. The closing of the sacral joint improves their innervation and initiates a stand-by in the horse.

The human spinal cord is shortened to lumbar vertebra one. In the horse exists a similar however much less pronounced shortening. The shortening of the human spinal cord places all lumbar and sacral nerve sections in thorax vertebrae ten to twelve above. The equine spinal cord's shortening, being less pronounced, positions sacral nerve sections two and three into the sacral joint. Human sacral dermatomes two and three, which proceed from corresponding sections of the human central nervous system innervate the rider's seat and legs. In other words, equine performance and the rider's presence on the horse are united in corresponding nerve sections.

21. The mounted and the dropped back

As a result of the sacral joint's closure the croup's conformation changes. It gets flat (see photo). Depending on the demands at hand the sacral joint remains closed and the croup maintains it stretched position or the sacral joint returns to center position. The latter is the result of forward locomotion, which lowers the sacrum and pulls the pelvis back to normal. A sudden stop opens the sacral joint and rounds the croup. The sacral joint opens in a horse when it urinates or gives birth. It opens in a mounted horse that lacks the closing of the croup.

22. The open sacral joint

The closing of the sacral joint initiates a mounting of the lumbar area. This mounting may proceed as far forward as thorax vertebra nine, that is to the first vertebra of the equine flexible middle section. The degree of the back's mounting is balanced by the cantilevered backbone's flexibility.

The unfolding of the mounted horse's locomotion has much to do with this balance. As the equine backbone gains elasticity the horse learns to balance the degree of the sacral joint's closing and the back's mounting with the bending of the haunches and the descent of the rider's seat. It begins to fine-tune this balance according to the rider's wishes and the tasks at hand. The rider uses his bottom, legs and torso to communicate these wishes. A turn of his shoulders turns and a rotation in his flexible middle section bends the horse.

This transfer works on account of an impulse exchange between human and equine sensory-motor systems. It communicates the rider's wishes to the horse as well as informs him of the horse's current physical status. The rider, however, may call on yet another system of communication, which exists in the horse...

(6) II. The Horse's Parts, b. Abdomen and Diaphragm

The equine diaphragm is a large muscle that stretches the length and width of the horse’s torso. Descending forward from thorax vertebra eighteen and attaching to the free ribs nine to eighteen, it hooks up to the sternum just behind the horse’s front legs. The diapraghm seperates reproductive and digestive organs from heart and lungs. It delineates forehand and hindquarters.

23. The diaphraghm

When the croup closes the equine abdominal tract moves forward and presses against the diapraghm (see postures). The diapraghm’s resulting reaction and the back's mounting provide room for the solar plexus, which indicates the horse’s lightness.

The solar plexus is a nerve bundle of the autonomous nervous system. This bundle in the human wraps around the Aorta in the area of the last thorax vertebra twelve and the first lumbar vertebra. It is located between stomack and spinal cord in the very same area, from which the rider’s central steering works.

In the horse the solar plexus is located in the hindquarters right under the uppermost section of the diapraghm between stomack and spine. It corresponds to thorax nerve sections sixteen to eighteen, which are located midway between thorax nerve section nine and the sacral joint; that part of the horse's back in other words, which mounts when the croup closes.

The diapraghm is the major breathing muscle. In the human it ascends like a dome from the ninth vertebra. This breath’s engine is innervated by the phrenic nerve, which in the human proceeds from the diapraghm to neck vertebrae five and six. In the horse it proceeds from the the diapraghm to neck vertebrae six and seven. The neck's position and adjustments of the diapraghm's activity thus correlate.

Diapraghm and solar plexus interact. Many years ago I discovered an astounding improvement of my self-confidence, which resulted from a simple lifting of the ribcage. Without any further inquiries I spontaniously attributed this improvement to diapraghm and solar plexus.

Only in May 2006 began the systematic experiment with movements and reflexes of my vertebra and their impact on shoulders, ribs and sacrum. The goal was, and continues to be, the detection of means, by which the rider might swiftly improve and/or change his posture, as equine positions and locomotion may call for. Informed by the horse's physiology and suspecting a correlation between human and equine structure I began this research with raising the second neck vertebra, while simultaniously moving back neck vertebrae seven and thorax vertebra one located at the shoulder blades' upper rim. Between them the before mentioned peripheral nerve C8 exits the spinal column. From them the dermatome C8 proceeds down the arms to the ringfingers and pinkies.

These two exercises resulted in a reorientation of my spinal column around thorax vertebrae ten to twelve. They caused the shoulders to descend and close. In some sort of automation they move elbows and hips towards each other. In the body’s lower part they caused a forward movement of the sacrum, accompanied by a leveling of the pelvis.

The horse tends to copy these adjustments in the human vertebra. They call on the raising of the second vertebra in the horse's upper neck and a lowering of the sacrum. A resulting improvement in the sacrum's innervation activates the haunches. Raising the second neck vertebra brings up the lower neck and - in coordination with the activation of the haunches - lifts the forehand. Resultingly the horse mobilizes and begins to work in second gear.

Interestingly enough all these adjustments, both in the rider and in the horse, center around the solar plexus. It remains to fully understand the nerve section C8.

(7) II. The Horse's Parts, c. Withers and Front Legs

(8) II. The Horse's Parts, d. Neck and Head

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It follows part three "Locomotion".

(9) III. Locomotion, a. Horses at Work

Anatomical elements of equitation were addressed in previous chapters. In ensuing chapters these elements will appear in motion.

Today one generally observes two types of equine locomotion. Rapid spurts and turns of horses in liberty and goal-oriented locomotion of horses at work. The former represents movement in all directions; the latter in only one, the forward direction. Such clearly defined distinctions did not always exist. Going to war, working with cattle and sheep or traveling over changing terrain horses employed both locomotive abilities. They knew how to steadily go forward and how to move purposefully in lateral directions. In addition horses trained for battle were able to reverse the direction of locomotion, not only in the walk. They were trained as dangerous and effective fighting maschines.

The horse's forward locomotion so typical of equitation today dates back to the discovery of speed. In response at the beginning of modern times a faster, more powerful rectangular horse was first bred in 18th century England. It today is trained for maximum performance in a number of clearly defined sports. For some one-hundred-fifty this new horse was employed to improve speed and power in horse breeds world-wide; often genetically altering these to a point of no return.

One effect of these changes was the horse's ability to take tall jumps. This unheard-of equine know-how was discovered in late 19th century. And curiously jumping suits the strong rectangular horse, because it alleviates physical stress, which builds up in the warped flexible middle section. Today jumpers use the original twin locomotive abilities speed and agility over high jumps in narrow arenas. However an irony occurs. They no longer perform in human/equine unity or in one-to-one reaction to the rider's body language. Their performance is the result of genetic specialization, repetitious training and the horse's awareness of the next jump.

An analysis of modern equestrian sports suggests, that up to ninety percent of all horses today perform in forward locomotion. Of the remaining ten percent only a small percentage develops under saddle their full range of natural locomotive abilities. These being the few classically trained horses. Anyone wishing to gain insight into equine locomotion has therefore but one source of information: the horse in liberty. And - for this very reason I spent many hours of my life looking at horses in locomotion; how they move in the fields and paddocks, playing and reacting to each other and the wind; and observed them under saddle; their shifts of balance and posture; their interaction with the rider.

These observations are the basis of my research. And yet it took years before the following questions became obvious. Which postures and which types of balance does a horse in liberty adopt to accomplish its owns goals and purposes? What characterizes these postures and balances? How do horses produce the powerful out-of-this-world paces, turns and jumps we so often see them perform in the fields? And there are other questions. Why do horses not offer this perfection under saddle? And - if they did, why might riders in fact be afraid of it?

(10) III. Locomotion, b. Horses in Liberty

Looking at horses, which move freely on their own one can’t help but make the following observation.

They rarely, if ever, adopt the horizontal balance or the extended position so popular in the training of horses today. Only in brief moments of hightened concentration and effort do they bend the poll or, to use the physiologically correct description, open the yes joint. Managing difficulties such as deep ground and fast turns they never lower the neck base but, on the contrary, raise it. In addition they close the croup and activate the second gear. They do so to manouver quickly and perform above the ground. They change from an open to a closed croup and back without any interruption in the flow of locomotion. They at all times seem to know exactly how far they must open the yes joint and/or close the no joint. In other words, they know exactly how much tension they must put on the long ligament from the front or from the back to accomplish a particular feat. They never get out of rhythm, never lose their footing or miss a step. Even on most un-level grounds.

This incredible quality of an albeit average horse’s performance at liberty leads me to conclude that, as concerns equitation, there is but one question: why a horse that performs with such perfection without the rider in liberty should have any difficulty in performing likewise with a rider.

(11) III. Locomotion, c. The Horse's Performance

The horse is one thing, the rider another. However, before the following summary on equine locomotion, followed by details on human/equine correlations and the rider's role in equitation I would like to present a vision, which - informed by repeated observations and my own experience - may provide an escape from the labyrinth, which the modern horse’s warp so often creates. Speaking of equitation, as it may have been - originally.

Anyone who had the opportunity to ride and observe horses at liberty regularly and over long periods of time will readily agree that training involves but three simple steps. The rider must employ a body language, which the horse understands spontaneously. He must seek to inspire its trust. Appropriate training routines will develop fitness and cooperation.

In keeping with these ideas the choice of posture, balance, performance and all else concerning the equine body may as well be left to the horse's discretion. An innate logic in its body will automatically work towards the second gear. But one thing may delay this progression: the horse’s warp. This warp may, as it stands, be equalled by warps in the rider's body.

Even the novice horse’s lack of submission presents no problem, because physical factors such as the permanent closure of the croup, the inner hind leg as it steps under the center of weight and corresponding changes in the equine nervous system rule this submission. For indeed, performance and submission are linked in the horse's body. By the same token the rider uses these elements of equitation to make the warped horse straight.

Experience confirms that young mounts trained according to these principles assume the traveling position and do well as long as they are permitted to carry their heads freely. They must be allowed to open or close their polls as mood, terrain and/or activities demand. They will change to the extended position when they get tired, in the process dropping head and neck to stretch the muscles of the back. They will bend in the ribs in working position and become more pliable, wiser and able to handle themselves in all sorts of exercises and figures.

Horses trained according to these principles quickly rediscover their abilities and power. As soon as they have overcome the initial stress of carrying a rider and getting straight, they change to performance position and initiate the second gear. While raising head and neck they elevate the forehand and liberate the shoulders. They enter a state, which feels divine and non-the-less is clearly indicated in their physiology.

And then the horse is progressively enabled to produce the powerful paces, turns and jumps we see them perform at liberty in the field, only now at the rider’s service and under his full control. I must admit, while writing this paragraph I get excited. As any rider will, who has experienced the light horse in second gear. Somehow a corresponding lightness and sense of empowerment stimulates the rider.

(12) III. Locomotion, d. Balance, Posture and Gears

We return to the observation of locomotion. A step-by-step interrogation of bodily shifts, which account for the horse’s postures and balances, may attribute to their understanding. The nervous systems' and in fact the force of life's role in equitation is introduced. These will be discussed further in concluding chapters.

The horse at liberty moves in natural balance. This balance is characterized by smooth transitions from open to closed croups and back. The horse out in the open uses these transitions to deal with safety, grounds and/or changes of mood. In the mounted horse the croup closes. It remains closed and the horse adopts the so called horizontal balance. For sake of clarity and a distiction from the before mentioned second gear it helps to realize that the horizontal balance corresponds to what one may want to call the first gear. In other words, the horse in liberty constantly changes balance. Under saddle it stabilizes; it moves in horizontal balance and first gear. It knows the option of a superior innervation, which for lack of better words I call the second gear. Historical research and considerations of equine physiology lead me to conclude that in pre-industrial times the second gear was the mounted horse's normal way to move.

24. The diagonal abdominal muscle which closes the croup

Gear and posture refer to two different physiological functions. Gear speaks of the horse’s innervation, which - tapping life's force - is regulated by the long ligament and this other system of communication. Posture is the result of muscular input. Each - travel, stretch, work and performance postures – results from the use of different muscle groups. As concerns their interaction: performance and traveling lend themselves to the activation of the second gear. Working permits a transit as long as head and neck carry freely. Extension however does not allow for it. The descending neck preclude the second gear. So does the over bending of the horse’s poll in both, the yes and the no joint.

The croup closes in response to the rider’s weight. Under the rider’s direction the modern horse in first gear gains experience with balancing the back’s mounting and the sacral joint’s closing, while going for maximum ease and mobility. The rider addresses the hind legs even-sidedness and with it introduces first steps towards making the warped horse straight. He distributes the weight evenly on all four legs and rides forward. The permanent closure of the croup assures the continued elevation of the horse’s cantilevered backbone. The hind legs step under the center of balance and support the horse’s weight. The sacrum lowers; the haunches gain elasticity; the horse prepares for second gear.

As a result of these phases the horse rediscovers the second gear. This it knows well from many albeit brief moments of hightened excitement and self-imposed demands at liberty out there in the field. And - under the guidance of the rider it begins to recognize a new option. It learns to maintain the long ligament's tension and discovers how to balance this tension in the no joint between neck vertebrae one and two. The long ligament's tension triggers the high performance muscles in the horse’s upper line (see perform) and calls on the improvement of innervation in the sacral joint. All these are aspects of equine performance. They account for an increase in mobility and self-control, and characterize the second gear. They as well call on a change of the horse's attitude towards the rider.

To summarize, these are the changes that take place between natural and horizontal balance, first and second gear. They concern the horse’s structure and nerves and speak of superior empowerment. But this is not all. These changes also have a profound effect on the horse’s mind and emotions.

When a child learns to read and write it discovers the world of the intellect and enters a new sphere. Likewise the mounted horse gets straight and discovers the second gear. It finds out about the option of full and lasting control of its physical forces. The resulting change of spheres the horse experiences not by itself, out there in the open. It is the result of the rider's guidance and supervision. The rider leads the horse from nature to culture. The horse responds with the emotions of a first great love.

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Next is the nervous system's role in equitation.

(13) IV. Nerves, a. Three Systems

A presentation of equine bio-dynamics and the ins and outs of equitation is complete only with the inclusion of one more topic: human and equine nervous systems.

Both, man and the horse are mammals. Their function relies on the sensory-motor system, which prodeeds from the brain and constitutes the central nervous systems' core. Brain and central nervous system are located in skull and vertebra respectively, which provide for their protection. They are enveloped in a three-layered skin, the dura mater. Within the dura mater a liquid circulates, which nourishes and further protects them.

The mammal's nervous system consist of fibers for the transmission of sensory impressions and fibers for the transmission of motor commands. Nerve impulses flow as well between nervous systems. These are in addition to the central nervous system the autonomous nervous system, which handles organ functions, and the peripheral nervous system, which innervates body and extremities. A special function innervates the skin.

At front and end of the horse’s cantilevered backbone, and analogous at the top and bottom of the upright human spine, major peripheral nerves are gathered in bundles called plexi. These mix and redistribute, in the process creating the multitude of combined nerve functions needed to fulfill a creature's wills.

The autonomous nervous system backs up activities, which the will initiates. The autonomous nervous system itself, however, is not subject to will. It consists of motor fibers only, which proceed to the organs in the walls of major blood vessels. Two components, sympathetic and parasympathetic, share in the innervation of the cardiac, respiratory, digestive and urogenital organ activities of the body. They as well correspond to skin and glands.

The sympathetic is responsible for energy up-swing, the parasympathetic for its downturn, for detoxification and replenishment. The parasympathetic runs outside of and parallel to the vertebra and connects to the central nervous system in the poll and sacrum. The sympathetic also proceeds outside and parallel to the vertebra but connects to segments of the central nervous system, beginning with the first neck vertebra and in the horse ending with lumbar vertebra four, at the center of equine power. In the horse it proceeds in a double strand, which begins at thorax vertebra three and ends at thorax vertebra eighteen.

Considering the fact that mammals, that is rider and horse, are innervated by three different nervous systems, one may suspect that all three have something to do with riding. And so it is.

(14) IV. Nerves, b. The Autonomous Nervous System

The following text may read like a change of subject matter, but it isn't. It concludes on the before mentioned other system of communication and reveals the autonomous nervous system's role in it. The text begins with a presentation of clues, which dawned on me only after many years of uncertainty on the meaning of the rider's hand. What is its role? What do with the reins so the horse understands their impact spontaneously?

Have you noticed the changes that take place in a novice horse, when it begins to work for the rider? It wears a peculiar look expressing surprise, agreement and well-being. As if looking inside, no longer regarding surroundings, but concentrating on something there. Have you seen the young horse's inevitable dive to delightedly rub the nose on a front leg quickly set afore? Have you realized how quickly the horse settles into work, turning round after round in the school? Stepping forward in ever more regulated paces for increasing periods of time. And this after they moved in occasional spurs only, playing while growing up.

The repeated observation of these three individual phenomena fell in place when I saw a diagram, an illustration of the equine autonomous nervous system. It sparked the suspicion that all three phenomenon in fact trace back to one common ground.

To summarize, all points to the fact that - grace to the parasympathetic - the rider with his ringfingers impacts the horse’s sacrum. And this not without gaining an influence on the way. Structurally this is possible because of bit and reins. In the horse's body the configuration of the parasympathetic enables it. As before mentioned, the parasympathetic as gegenspieler of the sympathetic is responsible for rest and replenishment. It proceeds from poll to sacrum and down the horse's head to the nostrils. In the rear it contacts via sacrum sacral nervous sections one to four. In this context I would like to remind the reader of the before mentioned sacral nerve sections two and three, which interact with the rider’s bottom and legs. Precisely these and their adjoining nerve sections the parasympathetic contacts in the sacral joint.

Parasympathetic and sympathetic mix in several plexi. The solar plexus is located in the vicinity of thorax vertebra eighteen and lumbar vertebrae one between backbone and stomack. In addition there are a plexus near lumbar vertebra four, which relates to the horse's reproductive organs and the pelvic plexus, with relates to the pelvic diapraghm, which - when released - causes the tail to rise. The rider impacts the horse with his hands. No wonder, one may add, if what I suspect is true. His ringfingers send messages to the solar plexus, plus a plexus that speaks to the center of the horse’s strength, plus the pelvic plexus. In the sacral joint they contact the very sections of the central nervous system, which innervate the horse's hind legs. And, as if this was not enough, the rider’s bottom and legs communicate with these very nerve sections as well. In the sacral joint, in other words, the impact of the rider's ringfingers meets the presence of his seat and legs.

May I remind the reader once more of the three clues at the beginning of this text. Their significance now appears obvious. They speak to the horse’s surprise in view of the rider’s impact on its most inner being. They hint at parasympathetic nerves in the horse's head and nose. They bespeak the parasympathic’s role in the horse’s regularity and replenishment.

So precious a thing demands proper access, the reader may think. And indeed, the horse is not at the rider's merci. It can shut off the access of his hands to its inner workings. Because, between the rider’s ringfinger and the horse’s parasympathetic is the jaw, which when blocked is firmly locked. Empowered by strong muscles the jaw grinds up the horse's nourishment. It is attached to the head in two simple hanging joints just below the ears. And the jaw's central role in any creature's well-being, life and survival goes without saying.

Both jaw and tongue have functions in riding. Classic French equitation emphasizes an empathy of movements of the tongue and the parasympathetic and, likewise, an empathy of the movements of the jaw and the sympathetic. And in fact, the jaw not only regulates the rider’s access to the parasympathetic. It also reflects the sympathetic's energy up-swing indicated by a horse’s foaming mouth. Any impact on jaw and tongue, finally, also depends on the horse’s contact to the rider’s hand. The horse may choose this contact. It has the option to avoid it. The horse thus holds a second key to this miraculous access to its inner workings.

(15) IV. Nerves, c. The Central Nervous System

Within the central nervous system a sensory-motor system proceeds from roof to roots. It constitutes a core from which life is managed. From it motor impulses flow to the body, sensory impulses return to it. This system responds to intention and regulates motion. All speaks to shared functions in the rider and the horse of this sensory-motor systems in equitation.

Not all impulses of the sensory-motor system reach the brain or, for that matter, need its involvement. Many short-circuit in various spots of the central nervous system. An example: if you want to get up from a chair and walk to the window, you find yourself getting up and walking. You need not employ your mind to do so. These short-circuits, or reflexes, make for riding. A horse, in other words, reads the rider’s intentions and, in a work-sharing process along definitely defined lines fulfills the rider's will. The rider sits and uses his sensory system. The horse moves employing its motor system. Curiously in this process it needs not abandon its senses. It agrees with the rider and continues to navigate obstacles and grounds.

As concerns the correlations of human/equine nerves, which permit this work-sharing, three details are worth knowing. They are the harmony of different skeletal structures, the shortening of the human central nervous system to the first lumbar vertebra and a similar, however much less pronounced shortening in the horse and the before mentioned peculiar innervation of the skin in so called dermatomes.

Human and equine nervous systems in principle are alike. Human and equine bone structures, however, differ principally. The horse moves on four legs. The greater part of its vertebra, that is the cantilevered bridge, which at its center bears the rider, is in horizontal position. The S-shaped neck vertebra carries the head, which can rise to the skies or descend to the ground, and supports the horse's facial features. The human walks on two legs. His spinal column is in upright position. Supported by the sacrum in it he can bend and/or rotate. His head balances on the spinal column's upper end.

Man's upright spinal column and the horse’s multiply-shaped vertebra make for different motions. And yet, despite these differences the postures of two-legged man and the four-legged horse do correspond, as does the distribution of their dermatomes and peripheral nerve roots, respectively.

The extreme shortening of the human central nervous system to the uppermost lumbar vertebra results in an awkward distribution of peripheral nerves. One would expect these to exit directly, each pair proceeding from the central nervous system to corresponding exit holes right there, as they do in most of the horse. However in the human this system gets lost. Beginning with neck vertebra three, peripheral nerve roots do not correlate with exit holes. Instead peripheral nerves travel in the vertebral canal yet outside of the central nervous system for progressively longer distances. There is an order in the exit progression and this order is maintained. However, from lumbar vertebra one only peripheral nerves travel down. This phenomenon is called the horse’s tail. Resultingly nerve sections, which correspond to the human's lower body are stacked up in thorax vertebrae ten to twelve above, which it so happens also provide for the human spinal column's greatest flexibility.

How peculiar, the reader may think. And yet, purpose and reason are at work. In a world subject to a steady pull of gravity such an arrangement, barring the risk of pressure on the peripheral nerves, is possible only in the upright vertebra. The human is born with a full-length spinal cord. Its shortening is the result of growth. In other words, vertebrae grow. The central nervous system within does not. This particular process appears intimately linked to the extended learning phases in man's early life. With the development of intellectual facilities such as self-perception, consciousness and abstract thought. A foal gets up and immediately may run. Man takes time. He learns to sit, crawl, stand and walk before finally he also may run.

The shortened human central nervous system supports the correlation of human/equine nerves. Lumbar and sacral nerve sections are positioned mid-back in the area of the spinal column's greatest flexibility thus constituting the rider's central steering.

(16) IV. Nerves, d. The Peripheral Nervous System

The quality of nerve impulses depends on the structure from which they proceed. This study-horsemanship result is not new, and yet comes as a surprise, both in respect to human and equine posture. The horse's response to the rider's upright posture clearly indicates this fact and yet today alternate postures are sought, both in the human and in the horse.

Posture and its interaction with dermatomes and the autonomous nervous system, which - in detour via posture - appears to be subject to will after all, thus continues to be of great interest to study-horsemanship's research. How does posture relate to quality in equitation; how in the first place is this quality defined? And is not here, in this complex, which also includes some sort of animated core to be defined further, an access to understanding life? An access well established in Eastern cultures and curiously ignored in Christian realms.

The horse reads the rider's posture by way of the central nervous system's representation in the human skin. This human/equine communication awaits further research. Available empirical evidence, however, proves useful even now, independent of further verification and insight, to understand and teach riding.

Peripheral nerves proceed from the central nervous system and innervate body and limbs. Each peripheral nerve pair consists of four strands. Three of these mix in plexi and redistribute to produce a mammal's actions. A fourth one proceeds from the central nervous system directly to innervate peculiarly shaped skin regions, the before mentioned dermatomes. The central nervous system thus is unavoidably, permanently and directly informed of all that happens to a man’s outer most layer and all that goes on around him.

Dermatomes proceed in nearly horizontally stripes in the torso and practically vertically in arms and legs. If they were painted on the skin, one would easily discover that they innervate the surface of the human body in four distinct regions. Neck sections innervate head, neck, shoulders, arms and hands, thorax sections trunk and the arms' insides. Lumbar sections innervate the lumbar area, the legs' front regions and one part of the feet. Sacral sections innervate the seat, the legs' back regions and the other part of the feet.

The human central nervous system's shortening to lumbar vertebra one and the resulting position of lumbar and sacral nerve sections in thorax vertebrae ten to twelve above constitute a central steering in the center of the human back. From this central steering the upright and even-sided rider without any efforts directs and positions the horse. His limits are the horse’s ability, condition and health as well as his own experience in how to communicate with the horse. Riding is self-explainatory, because the horse can’t help but copy the rider's posture and in fact functions as an extension of his nervous system. The rider's central steering as well as all other human/equine correlations work with precision for good and for bad. They are both, inescapable and irrevocable. The rider’s even-sidedness and the quality of his nerve impulses make for good results. Any lacks take away from them and add to the horse's warp.

The horse reads the rider on his back by way of peculiar nerve distributions in the human skin. This may or may not be so and finally is no more than a technical detail. Truly amazing is the undeniable fact that the animal horse reads the human rider. Due to provisions for human/equine work-sharing it catches on to his mood, intention and will. It full well knows him, his good-will and any lacks thereof. It is aware of his skill and information as concerns equitation.

Where does this leave the rider? I conclude that as regards the physical posture, and as regards know-how knowledge are equitation's elements. In the rider's sensory-motor system posture, knowledge and know-how meet. The horse entrusts itself to this center in the man upon his back and the two - like one - move on in peace.

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The following information is added.

Postscript

Without doubt the reader will have noticed my approach.

In the research of equitation I assume the existance of an ideal. Only occasionally do I admit to the currently common diversions from the horse's postures and balances and the wide-spread use of mechanical means. I do so in Platonic tradition, attempting to understand not so much that which meets the eye, but the idea that underlies it. Or - in the words of Christian traditions - I wish to understand the work of God's hands, rather than deal with its perversion.

The modern rectangular horse is not straight. It must be made straight. How does the rider do this without violating its inner most being? Modern man rarely is upright and a wide spread unawareness of provisions for riding in the human body is evident. Is modern man still able to ride the modern horse? Does their unity have any chance? And further questions present themselves right here, in the human body. What is uprightness? Or, as someone put it. The appearance of balance does not suffice. The rider must be in balance. Which enters new questions.

After the completion of the topics here presented, equine biodynamics and human/equine nerve correlations, two further research topics presented themselves. How to teach riding and how to improve the modern horse.

Much has happened and further publications are pending ... .

Sources

The following studies provide additional information.

Christine Sander. Das Reitpferd. Will fliegen, tragen, sich erheben. 2002.
Also available in English and French.

Christine Sander. Schnittstelle Kreuzbein. 2003.

Christine Sander. Umgang mit der Vollkommenheit. 2003.

Copies can be requested here.

Bibliography

Equitation

Francois Robichon de la Gueriniere. Reitkunst oder gründliche Anweisung. Zuerst erschienen 1817. Olms Presse, 1999.

Faverot de Kerbrech. Methodische Dressur des Reitpferdes nach den letzten Anweisungen von Baucher. Zuerst erschienen circa 1880. Olms Press, 1987.

Francois Baucher. Methode der Reitkunst nach neuen Grundsätzen. Zuerst erschienen 1884. Olms Presse, 1998.

Gustav Steinbrecht. Das Gymnasium des Pferdes. Herausgegeben von Paul Plinzner. Zuerst erschienen 1884. Verlag Dr. Rudolf Georgi, 1993.

Etienne Beudant. Exterieur et Haute Ecole. Zuerst erschienen circa 1920. Jean-Michel Place, 1987.

Hans v. Heydebreck. Die deutsche Dressurprüfung, Das Gebrauchspferd, Paul Plinzner: Gustav Steinbrecht, ein Leben im Dienste der Reitkunst. Zuerst erschienen 1928. Olms Presse, 2001.

Udo Bürger. Vollendete Reitkunst, erstrebt-erforscht-erfühlt.
Verlag Paul Parey, 1959.

Edwin Erich Dwinger. Das Glück der Erde…. Erich Hoffmann Verlag, Heidenheim, 1965.

Nuno Oliveira. Sämtliche Schriften. Bände 1-6. Olms Presse, 1996.

History

Charles Chenevix Trench. Die Geschichte der Reitkunst. Nymphenburger Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1970.

Die Bücher des Alten Testaments, welches Jehova mit dem Volk der Juden und des Neuen Testaments, welches er mit der Menschheit gemacht hat.

Art

Bruno Chenique. Les Cheveaux de Gericault. Bibliotheque de l'Image 2002.

Physiology

John Sarno. Mind over Back Pain. Berkley Books N.Y., 1984

Moshe Feldenkrais. Die Entdeckung des Selbstverständlichen. suhrkamp taschenbuch 1440. 1987.

Peter Markworth. Sport Medizin. Zuerst erschienen 1983.
ro-ro-ro, 2001.

Gerhard Roth. Das Gehirn und seine Wirklichkeit. suhrkamp taschenbuch wissenschaft 1275. 1977.

Anthony Arnold. Rythmus und Berührung, Grundlagen und Praxis der Cranio-Sakral-Therapie. Goldman Verlag, 2001.

Peter Goody. Horse Anatomy, A Pictorial Approach to Equine Structure. Zuerst erschienen 1983. J. A. Allen, 2000.

Impressum

This book is an a.i.s. publication.

A printed German edition entitled, Die Elemente der Reiterei (2007), was published by the a.i.s. in 2007. Printed copies are no longer available. The German on-line edition can be viewed here.

A first printed English edition is forth-coming.

All rights on a.i.s. printed and on-line edition are reserved.

a.i.s.
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0033.2.33.55.86.89.
e-mail: c.sander@st-ho.com